- Definition. The Nature of Stress
- English Word Stress. Production and Perception
- Degrees of Word Stress
- Placement of Word Stress
- Tendencies in the Placement of Word Stress
- Functions of Word Stress
Phonetic parameters:
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- pitch
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- loudness
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- length
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- vowel quality
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- vowels' combination (e.g. diphthongs [au], [ei], [ie], [eu], etc.)
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As a result, there appears a contrast between stressed and unstressed syllables.
The differences between two terms
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‘The main phonetic parameters that show a contrast between stressed and unstressed syllables are: …’
a) English, German, French, and Russian
b) Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese
Each description of English word stress includes loudness, pitch, length and quality.
- LOUDNESSStressed syllables in English words often sound louder due to increased muscular effort – the vocal cords vibrate more intensely, resulting in loudness.
- PITCHThe syllable is perceived as prominent if there is a change of pitch on it.
The acoustic correlate of pitch is the frequency of the vibrations of the vocal cords. - IMPORTANT TO KNOW !It is not the direction of pitch change, but the movement itself.
Examples:
↘import, ↗import – it will still be stressed on the first syllable
imˈport– a pitch movement - LENGTHA greater amount of energy in the production of stressed syllable leads to the increase of its lengthas compared to the unstressed syllables.
- QUALITYA syllable often sounds more prominent if it contains a vowel that is different in quality from the vowels in other syllables.
In English they generally distinguish three degrees (levels) of stress:
primary
(strong, main, principal)
secondary
(half-strong, half-stressed)
weak
(unstressed)
American phoneticians (B. Bloch, G. Trager, H. Gleason) distinguish four contrastive degrees of word stress:
primary
secondary
tertiary
weak
- 1It is the last but one syllable in the words with suffixes -ary, -ory, -ony.Examples:
ˌrevoˈlutioˌnary
ˈdɪctioˌnary
ˈcereˌmony - 2It is argued that the tertiary stress follows the secondary stress in the verbs with the suffixes -ate, -ize, -y.Examples:
ˈdemonstˌrate
ˈorgaˌnize
ˈsimpliˌfy - 3Also, there is a tendency to use a tertiary stress in a post-tonic syllable in the words with an unreduced vowel in the last syllable in British English.Examples:
ˈblackˌboard
ˈdemonstˌrate
A. Gimson describes four degrees of word accent:
primary accent, marked by the last major pitch change in a word
secondary accent, marked by a non-final pitch change in a word
a minor prominence produced by the occurrence of a full vowel, but containing no pitch change
a non-prominent syllable containing no pitch change and one of the vowels [ɪ, ʊ, ə]
- What are three degrees (levels) of stress?
- What type of word stress do American phoneticians
(B. Bloch, G. Trager, H. Gleason) distinguish? - What placement in a word Tertiary stress has?
2. Identify and Mark Stresses. Look at the following words and mark the primary (1), secondary (2), and weak (0) stresses.
1. revolutionary
2. demonstrate
3. simplify
In English and Russian, stress is shifting, meaning it can change position in different forms of a word, differentiating lexical units and grammatical forms
'contrast vs cont'rast
'music vs mu'sician
- Phonological structure of syllables
- Number of syllables in the word
- Morphological type (simple, complex with affixes, or compound)
- Part of speech/grammatical categories (noun, verb, adjective, etc.)
The number of syllables in a word influences stress placement and patterns, with secondary stress appearing in multi-syllable words. Morphological factors also play a role, particularly whether a word is simple, complex, or compound.
do not change the stem's stress
re'fuse - re'fusal
attract stress to the syllable before them
'perfect - per'fection
carry stress themselves
cru'sade
Sometimes, the number of syllables also affects stress. For instance, the suffix -are attracts stress in two-syllable words (e.g., "migrate") but fixes it on the third syllable from the end in longer words (e.g., "communicate").
In addition to complex words, we must consider compound words, which consist of multiple roots or words functioning as one. Compounds can be written as:
one word (suitcase)
hyphenated (good-tempered)
two words (work day)
According to Peter Roach, the most common compound combines two nouns, typically stressing the first element (e.g., 'sunrise, 'typewriter). Some compounds stress the second element (e.g., bad-'tempered), while others have primary stress on the second and secondary stress on the first (e.g., clear-cut).
Stress is placed on the first element if it’s a noun ('wine glass) and on the second if the first is adjectival (heavy-'handed). Compounds usually have one primary stress, with secondary stress used if there are multiple stressed syllables.
Additionally, grammatical categories
affect stress placement, as seen in pairs contrasting adjectives/nouns with verbs
'insult vs in'sult
It is generally acknowledged that the accentual pattern of English words is liable to instability due to the inner typological proccesses that are a result of the historical development of the language. These processes are described as tendencies in the placement of word stress.
- 1Recessive Tendency:This tendency stresses the beginning of words, typical of Germanic languages. In native English words without prefixes (e.g., 'mother, 'daughter), stress often falls on the initial or second syllable. For words with prefixes, this tendency is more restricted (e.g., fore'see, with'draw).
- 2Rhythmical Tendency:This reflects the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables, contributing to the unique rhythm of English speech. It leads to secondary stress in multisyllabic French borrowings (e.g., revo'lution) and primary stress on the third syllable from the end in longer words (e.g., 'cinema, ar'ticulate). The interaction between recessive and rhythmical tendencies can create accentual variants (e.g., 'hospitable vs. hos'pitable).
- 3Retentive Tendency:This occurs when a derivative retains the stress of its original word (e.g., similar-assimilate). Sometimes, primary stress shifts to secondary stress in derivatives (e.g., 'demonstrate-demonst'ration).
In Russian, word stress also distinguishes lexical meanings of words
(e.g., 'чудная vs. чуд'ная) and grammatical forms of words
('зимы-зи'мы, 'беды – бе'ды).
Additionally, the stress structure of compound words relates closely to their semantic value, with stress typically placed on elements carrying greater semantic weight.
For example, in 'blackboard, the stress on the first morpheme indicates a single meaning, whereas equal stress in phrases (e.g., gentle 'man) suggests distinct meanings for each part. Stressed elements often convey new, important information, as seen in terms like 'dining-room and 'ballet dancer, where the first element is more significant.
What key functions does word stress serve?
- Word stress refers to the prominence of certain syllables in a word, pronounced with greater muscular energy than unstressed ones. Stressed syllables exhibit increased intensity, duration, and pitch, contributing to their loudness and length.
- There are two types of word stress: dynamic and musical (tonic). In English, word stress involves components such as loudness, pitch, length, and vowel quality. Three degrees of stress are generally recognized: primary, secondary, and weak, with tertiary stress sometimes included. Stress can be fixed or free, and it may shift between forms of a word.
- Factors influencing word stress placement include the phonological structure of syllables, the number of syllables, morphological complexity, and grammatical category. Variations in stress patterns are explained by three tendencies: recessive, rhythmical, and retentive.
- Word stress serves several functions: it organizes syllables, aids recognition in speech, and distinguishes grammatical forms and meanings. Russian learners often struggle with English word stress due to its instability and differences from Russian stress patterns. Teaching should focus on multi-syllable words with secondary stress, complex words with suffixes, compound words, and shifting stress in word-class pairs
(e.g., 'insult - in'sult).
